Chapter One:
The Sociological Perspective
Chapter Outline
I. What is sociology?
II. Where did sociology come from?
III. Where does sociology fit in the world of knowledge?
IV. Why study sociology?
V. The assumptions of a sociological perspective
A. Human beings are social
B. Society changes people
C. People change society
Biblical Reflection
"You are the light of the world."
-Matthew 5:14
You are about to embark on an interesting journey. We
hope you will enjoy the ride. But be careful—it gets bumpy and
may be hazardous to your mental health. We are going to challenge you
to think critically about the world around you and to rethink your personal
faith. Accepting this challenge means thinking "Christian-ly"
about your taken-for-granted world. As we demonstrate ways to act out
your faith in a world struggling for stability, we hope you will find
that sociology is an indispensable tool in helping you become a world
changer.
Plan of This Text
We have gathered Christian sociologists from across
North America to contribute their best efforts to this textbook. It
is our consensus that sociology and the Christian faith are intertwined.
Our faith informs our thinking about sociology. Sociology has changed
the way we look at the Christian church. As we share some of those insights
in this text, we invite you to draw your own conclusions. We do not
claim to have a single, united Christian theory of society. Rather,
we represent many Christian perspectives on society. It is our hope
that you will add your own Christian perspective as you consider the
social world around you.
Although a different author has written each chapter,
you will find some common threads throughout. Of particular interest
is how three basic sociological theories can apply to almost all social
phenomena. You will also see examples of how Christians can use sociology
to change the world.
What Is Sociology?
Sociology is the science of society. It explores the
influences and consequences of social behavior.
We view much of our behavior as the result of our own
personal choices. But is it really? (We warned you that sociology was
potentially hazardous to your mental health!) Did you ever get the feeling
that a lot of things in your life are just beyond your control? For
example, was your college choice really your own independent decision,
or was it the product of a myriad of social forces: family, high school,
work, friends, government, etc.? Sociology uncovers the many layers
of social forces that impinge upon our personal freedoms. We really
don't have many choices about our social behavior because there are
a host of social forces pushing us in different directions.
Your social behavior has consequences as well. Every
social interaction—face-to-face or E-mail to E-mail—changes
someone's life a little. When people get together, things happen! Sociology
studies the effects of your behavior—and everyone else's.
So sociology takes a second look at the "world taken for granted."1
Think of the world as that chair across from you. Right now you see
the chair from one particular perspective, but cannot see the whole
chair. You have all kinds of assumptions about what the other side,
the top, and the bottom of the chair look like. But you will never truly
know until you get up, walk around it, and closely examine it from a
variety of viewpoints. Right now you may only see two legs of the chair
(though you may assume, based on your previous experience with chairs,
that there are two more legs). Your friend across the room may see three
legs and another friend may see four. Who is right?
Likewise, sociology is one perspective on the world.
It will supplement the perspective you have been given by your parents,
your in-laws, your high school teacher, your pastor, your supervisor,
etc. Based on scientific data rather than on Grandma's "wisdom,"
a sociological perspective will help you have a more complete view of
the world.
Where Did Sociology Come From?
Curiously, sociology did not emerge as a discipline
until well after the scientific revolution of the 1700s. It is one of
the most recent of the sciences. In the Dark Ages, if one needed to
know about society, one would consult the local church, which was the
protector (and censor) of all knowledge. As the influence of the church
waned in Europe, there arose a need for an alternative source of knowledge
about the social world. The Industrial Revolution produced social problems
such as homelessness, urban blight, and crime that the church could
not (or would not) address. It was out of this need for social change
that sociology was born.
Most of the earliest sociologists had philosophic roots
in Judeo-Christian theology. As we shall see in coming chapters, many
sociologists come from religious families, so they have a great appreciation
for the role of religion in stabilizing a chaotic society. When the
influence of the church wanes, there is a need for alternate patterns
of religious thought. For some, science has become a pseudo-religion.
French social philosopher Auguste Comte (1789-1857)
coined the term "sociology" as "the science of society."
Dubbing sociology the "queen of the sciences," he reasoned
that if we can measure the physical world by using scientific methods,
then we ought to be able to measure the social world in the same way.
In his understanding, sociology was a higher form of science, since
the social world is more complex and more important than the physical
world. The sociologist was a "new priesthood" that would use
science to improve society.
As North America encountered its own social crises at
the turn of the twentieth century, sociology was imported from Europe
to solve problems of urban decay, crime, and poverty. Early American
sociologists were likewise interested in using this new science to change
the world for the better.
As sociology has developed in North America over the
past century, it has continued to attract people with religious roots.
While many contemporary sociologists are not overtly religious, most
have great appreciation for the role of religious ideas combined with
sociological insights to change the world.
What Sociology Is Not
Sociology is not theology or philosophy. Theology tells
us about the nature of God and humankind. Philosophy informs us about
the way things "ought to be." Theologians and philosophers
comb through "sacred" texts (like the Bible) and use logic
to explain the nature of the world. Sociology uses science to describe
the way things are—not what ought to be. Every educated person
should have some insights from philosophy and theology to formulate
an image of an ideal world. Then we can use insights from sociology
to understand the details about the current state of the world (its
"fallen-ness") and where we need to work to bring it back
to its ideal state (how we can be Christ's hands and feet to redeem
the world).
Sociology is not psychology. Both sociology and psychology
are sciences—using scientific data to understand human behavior.
However, psychology emphasizes the human mind (the intra-personal)—feelings,
emotions, self-image, etc. Sociology emphasizes inter-personal behavior—what
happens between individuals. The two fields are closely related. In
fact, there is an interesting field called social psychology that looks
at the impact of interpersonal behavior on one's attitudes and vice
versa. We will be taking a look at some of these interesting insights
later in this text. Generally speaking, psychologists use slightly different
methods of collecting data—favoring experiments over surveys—and
are more focused on unusual behavior (the neurotic or psychotic) rather
than the norm. Sociologists focus on the everyday, typical behavior
of large groups of people rather than on one specific unusual case.
Sociology is not socialism. It is not a political philosophy
advocating a particular economic or power structure. Because it is a
science, sociologists try to be objective in gathering data and truthful
in presenting information. There are sociologists who are politically
conservative, and those who are politically liberal. But in the practice
of sociology, we try to be neutral and honest in our methods of studying
and understanding the social world.
Where Does Sociology Fit in the World of Knowledge?
One of the presumptions of this text is that all truth
is God's Truth. Christians believe that biblical truth is the core of
all knowledge. Christian philosophers apply biblical wisdom to understand
the nature of the world around them. Artists express these inner truths
on canvas or in other creative media. Sociology is one of many social
and natural sciences that use empirical data (facts) to understand the
current (and sometimes past) state of the world. The applied scientist
uses these insights to act in the world. So while Christian sociologists
try to maintain neutrality in studying the world, our responses to our
discoveries are seldom neutral. As Christians we are obligated to help
change the world.
Why Study Sociology?
As you can see from the figure above, a truly educated
person needs a variety of insights in order to live and work in the
world. Sociology complements the other disciplines so one may more fully
understand the world. The Bible can tell us about the sinful nature
of human beings, but sociology can help us understand the details of
this sinful state. Sociologists use terms like "deviance"
and "dysfunction" to systematize our understanding of what
the Bible refers to as "sin."
By studying sociology you will gain a sociological imagination2
which will liberate you to see yourself within a social context. Most
of us go through life falsely believing we are the center of the universe.
A majority of the time you probably see your personal troubles as isolated
problems, unconnected to society as a whole. Sociology helps you take
the blinders off so that you may broaden your vision and see your world
as you've never seen it before. What we often see as "private troubles"—poverty,
unemployment, anorexia, drug use, divorce—are really public issues.
For example, while we often see people caught in poverty as just "lazy
individuals," sociology sees poverty as the product of a malfunctioning
social system.
Likewise the Bible informs us that Jesus Christ died
to cancel out sin: individual sin and social sin. Sinful individuals
create social sin—structures and institutions built on sin. "For
our struggle is not against enemies of blood and flesh, but against
the rulers [principalities], against the authorities, against the cosmic
powers . . ." (Eph. 6:12). Sociologists focus on the social sins
deriving from these "principalities and powers." We see examples
of how Jesus interacted with his social world in radical ways: healing
on the Sabbath (Matt. 12); affirming the worth of women and children
(Mark 10; Mark 14; John 4; Matt. 19); denouncing material wealth (Mark
10). Sociology helps us understand what this means in the twenty-first
century. What areas of our social world need radical transformation?
How can we act as Christ's hands and feet to help cancel the social
sins around us?
If you are interested in working in any of the applied
areas shown above, you need a sociological perspective. If you need
help in your everyday interactions with people, you need a sociological
perspective. If you want to understand the power structure at your office
in order to do God's work there, you need a sociological perspective.
If you want to understand why your mother or father, husband or wife,
son or daughter act as they do, you need a sociological perspective.
If you want to understand why things are the way they are, you need
a sociological perspective.
The Assumptions of a Sociological Perspective
Remember the chair analogy? Sociology is one platform
from which to view the chair (the world). As humans we cannot see the
whole world at once (only God can see all), so we must take a position
in order to view the chair. This stance is based on certain assumptions.
Assumptions are statements that predispose you to see the world in a
certain way. An assumption is not a point to debate: it is just where
you are standing to view the world. In order to do sociology, we are
asking that you see the world from a certain stance. This stance is
based on three assumptions. You don't have to walk away from this course
accepting them all. But consider, just for the time being perhaps, these
three assumptions of the sociological perspective3:
1. Human beings are social in nature.
"Then the Lord God said, 'It is not good that the man should be
alone'" (Gen. 2:18). And so God created other people to love and
care for us. God created people to need other people. It is not part
of our nature to be alone. Psychological research shows that when a
person is left alone for an extended period of time, abnormalities ensue:
anxiety, hallucinations, and insanity. We quite naturally seek the company
of others. Since we are created in God's image, we seek the same intimacy
with others that God seeks with us. We need close relationships with
at least a few people in order to survive. And other people need us
to love and care for them. Jesus said, "By this everyone will know
that you are my disciples, if you have love for one another" (John
13:35).
Can you think of some people without whom you could not survive? Start
with your earliest caregivers. Aren't you glad they didn't abandon you
at the hospital to fend for yourself? You needed people to feed you
and give you warmth and lots of hugs. As you grew up, you needed family,
teachers, and friends to help you learn about the world.
Now that you are older you still need people, though often you would
prefer to be left alone. People help us to navigate the world: They
sell us food and clothing, give us jobs, and buy our products. As adults
we still need lots of hugs. We thrive as individuals when we have healthy
relationships with other people. It's just the way God created us.
2. Society changes people.
We need people, but people create problems for us. Sometimes they interfere
with our personal freedom, intimidate, exploit, and alienate us. When
people organize into a thing called "society," the social
forces can be very far from God's command to "Love one other."
Society has rules (norms) and nasty ways of enforcing those rules (sanctions).
Sometimes these norms seem rather arbitrary and inane. For instance,
why do North American women have to shave their legs while men can have
hairy legs? There's no biblical mandate or logic to it: It's just the
way society is. Society can make us do things we would not ordinarily
do just by making us feel guilty or inferior. This book will explore
the ways in which people, organized into a society, change other people.
Some of these changes are good. For example, aren't you glad your high
school English teacher kept nagging you about your grammar and punctuation?
You need those skills now to survive your sociology class! Chances are,
other people got you to consider this college, this class, and even
to consider Jesus Christ! These are things you probably would not have
done on your own.
Some of these changes are vexing. For example, did other
kids affect your self-image by calling you names in school? Does your
society sometimes make you feel guilty for being "too ambitious"
and not staying home with your family? Are you weighed down with the
extra baggage of disappointments, making it more difficult for you to
succeed in college? Social forces can affect the way we feel about ourselves
and change the way we behave.
3. People change society.
But let's not blame society for all the bad things that happen to us.
Who is society? We are society! People, by organizing themselves, create
a society. And people, by working together, change society.
You don't have to go on a mission trip or demonstrate
in the streets to change society. You are in the process of changing
society right now. Think about people whose lives are different because
you are here. Do you remember the movie It's a Wonderful Life? George
Bailey (played by Jimmy Stewart) discovers the world would be radically
different if he were not alive. What about your parents, spouse, children,
coworkers, and friends—would their lives be much different if you
were not here? With each interaction, you are changing the world. Didn't
you change the world for that woman at the checkout counter when you
smiled at her? Didn't you change the world when you told your sick friend
you would pray?
You can change the world for better or for worse. You
decide. If you don't get control and change things for the better, society
may come along and change you for the worse. This book will help you
understand the way society works so that you can be pro-active instead
of re-active. You can be part of some positive change instead of being
taken in by other social forces seeking to gain at your expense.
Conclusion
Sociology explores the relationship between society
and the individual. God creates the individual with the need for loving
interactions with others. God seeks a loving interaction with the individual,
and the individual, having been made in the image of God, seeks God.
As well, individuals made in the image of God create a society -however
flawed -in which to have relationships with others. This society becomes
a nemesis for us. It changes the individual by shaping attitudes and
behaviors. But the individual, in turn, changes society by creating
and sustaining culture, social structure, and social institutions. Sociology
explores the details of this dyad in detail.
We are intricately connected to our social world. Sometimes
we would like to escape, and often we do escape for a brief vacation,
but we are called to social interaction. So interact we must.
We are like puppets on a string. The strings connect
us to society. Society is pulling the strings and we are always moving
in response to those tugs of society. But what would happen if we cut
those strings to society? What would happen if we disconnected ourselves
from our society? . . . THUD! We would fall to the ground, lifeless.
So we are puppets on a string, connected to society
and tugged upon by social forces: family, school, media, and church.
Is that it? Of course not! We can look up and say, "Hey, who's
tugging those strings?" And occasionally we can tug back. That
is what sociology is all about. We are investigating the puppet-master:
the society that is tugging on our strings. We will examine what those
tugs are all about and who is doing the tugging. And, having understood
society, we will gain courage and skill to TUG BACK . . . maybe just
a little. And so we will change the world!
overview
Sociology is one of many perspectives on the world.
It takes a second look at everyday social interactions. But the perspective
of sociology is unique in that it is the science of society. It studies
the antecedents and consequences of social behavior.
The roots of sociology are in the social philosophy
of nineteenth-century Europe. Auguste Comte and others tried to use
scientific principles to understand social changes precipitated by the
Industrial Revolution. From the beginning, sociologists have sought
to change their world by understanding the social forces that act upon
human behavior.
Sociology is a unique discipline, but it often overlaps
with other disciplines. Though its subject matter is similar to philosophy
and theology, it uses scientific methods to gather and analyze data.
It is a social science, similar to other social sciences like economics,
history, anthropology, psychology, and political science. But the focus
of sociology is on interpersonal behavior and how these behaviors contribute
to a social system.
Sociologists operate from three basic assumptions
about the world:
